Physics syllabus for Jamb

Jamb syllabus for Physics topic 1 to 5

1. Measurement and units

• Length, area an volume: Metre rule, Venier calipers Micrometer, Screw-guage, measuring cylinder
• Mass (i) Unit of mass (ii) Use of simple beam balance (iii) Concept of beam balance
• Time (i) Unit of time (ii) Time-measuring devices
• Fundamental physical quantities
• Derived physical quantities and their units (i) Combinations of fundamental quantities and determination of their units
• Dimensions (i) Definition of dimension (ii) Simple examples
• Limitation of experimental measurements (i) Accuracy of measuring instruments (ii) Simple estimation of errors (iii) Significang figures (iv) Standard form
• Measurement, position, distance and displacement (i) Concept of displacement (ii) Distinction between distance and displacement (iii) Concept of position and coordinates (iv) Frame of reference
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  After studying the topics, candidate should be able to:

1. Identify the units of length, area and volume
2. Use different measuring instruments
3. Determine the lengths surface area and volume of regular and irregular bodies
4. Identify the unit of mass
5. Use simple beam balance, e.g Buchart's balance and chemical balance
6. Identify the unit of time
7. Use different time-measuring devices
8. Relate the fundamental physical quantities to their units
9. Deduce the units of derived physical quantities
10. Determine the dimensions of physical quantities
11. Use the dimensions to determine the units of physical quantities
12. Test the homogeneity of an equation
13. Determine the accuracy of measuring instruments
14. Estimate simple errrors
15. Express measurements in standard form
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2. Scalars and Vectors

• Definition of scalar and vector quantities
• Examples of scalar and vector quantities
• Relative velocity
• Resolution of vectors into two perpendicular directions including graphical methods of solution
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  After studying the topic, the student should be able to:

1. Use strings, meter ruler and engineering calipers, vernier calipers and micrometer, screw guage
2. Note the degree of accuracy
3. Identify disatnce travel in a specified direction
4. Use compass and protractor to locate points/direction
5. use cartesian systems to locate positions in x-y planned
6. Plot graph and draw inference from the graph
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3. Motion

• Types of motion: Translational, oscillatory, rotational, spin and random
• Relative motion
• Causes of motion
• Types of force: (i) Contact (ii) Force field
• Linear motion: (i) Speed, Velocity and acceleration (ii) Equations of uniformly accelerated motion: (iii) Motion under gravity (iv) Distance-time graph and velocity time graph (v) Instantaneous velocity and acceleration
• Projectiles: (i) Calculation of range, maximum height and time of flight from the ground and a height (ii) Applications of projectile motion
• Newton's laws of motion: Inertia, mass and force (ii) Relationship between mass and acceleration (iii) Impulse and momentum (iv) Froce-time graph (v) Conservation of linear momentum (Coefficient of restitution not necessary)
• Motion in a circle: (i) Angular velocity and angular acceleration (ii) Centripetal and centrifugal forces (iii) Applications
• Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M) (i) Definition and explanation of simple harmonic motion (ii) Examples of systems that execute S.H.M (iii) Period, frequency and amplitude of S.H.M (iv) Velocity and acceleration of S.H.M (v) Simple treatment of energy change in S.H.M (vi) Force vibration and resonance (Simple treatment)
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  After studying the topic, student should be able to:

1. Identify different types of motion
2. Solve numerical problem on collinear motion
3. Identify force as cause of motion
4. Identify push and pull as forms of force
5. Identify electric and magnetic attractions, gravitational pullas forms of field forces
6. Differentiate between speed, velocity and acceleration
7. Deduce equations of uniformly accelerated motion
8. Solve problems of motion under gravity
9. Interpret distance-time graph and velocity-time graph
10. Compute instantaneous velocity and acceleration
11. Compare inertia, mass and force
12. Deduce the relationship between mass and acceleration
13. Analyse the energy changes occurring during S.H.M
14. Identify different types of forced vibration
15. Enumerate applications of resonance
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4. Gravitational field

• (i) Newton's law of universal gravitation (ii) Gravitational potential (iii) Conservative and non-conservative fields (iv) Acceleration due to gravity (v) Variation of g on the earths surface (vi) Distinction between mass weight escape velocity (vii) Parking orbit and weightlessness
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  After studying the topic, candidate should be able to:

1. Identify the expression for gravitational force between two bodies
2. Appply Newton's law of universal gravitation
3. Give examples of conservative and non-conservative fields
4. Deduce the expression for gravitational field potentials
5. Identify the causes of variation of g on the earth's surface
6. Differentiate between mass and weight
7. Determine escape velocity
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5. Equilibrium of Forces

• Equilibrium of particles: (i) Equilibrium of coplanar forces (ii) Triangles and polygon of forces (iii) Lamis theorem
• Principles of moment (i) moment of a force (ii) Simple treatment and moment of a couple (torque) (iii) Applications
• Conditions for equilibrium of rigid bodies under the action of parallel and nonparallel forces (i) Resolution and composition of forces in two perpendicular directions (ii) Resultant and equilibrant
• Centre of gravity and stability (i) Stable, unstable and neutral equilibrant
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  After studying the topic, the student should be able to:

1. Apply the conditions for the equilibrium of coplanar forces to solve problems
2. Use triangle and polygon laws of forces to solve equilibrium problems
3. Use Lami's theorem to solve problems
4. Determine moment of a force and couple
5. Determine the resultant and equilibrant of forces
6. Differentiate between stable, unstable and neutral equilibra
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Jamb syllabus for Physics topic 6 to 10

6. Work, Energy and Power

• (i) Definition of work, energy and power (ii) Forms of energy (iii) conservation of energy (iv) Qualitative treatment between different forms of energy (v) Interpretatoin of area under the force-distance curve
• Energy and society (i) Sources of energy (ii) Renewable and non-renewable energy e.g coal, crude oil, sun wind etc (iii) Uses of energy (iv) energy and development (v) energy diversification (vi) environmental impact of energy e.g global warming, greenhouse effect and spillage (vii) energy crises (viii) conversion of energy (ix) Devices used in energy production
• Dams and energy production (i) Location of dams (ii) Energy production
• Nuclear energy
• Solar energy (i) Solar collector (ii) Solar panel for energy supply
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  After studying the topic, candidates should be able to:

1. Differentiate between work, energy and power
2. Compare different forms of energy, giving examples
3. Apply the principle of conservation of energy
4. Examine the transformation between different forms of energy
5. Interpret the area under the force-distance curve
6. Itemize the sources of energy
7. Identify methods of energy transition
8. Explain the importance of energy in the development of the society
9. Identify energy uses in their immediate environmental
10. State different forms of energy conversion
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7. Friction

• (i) Static and dynamic Friction (ii) Coefficient of limiting friction and its determination (iii) Advantages and disadvantages of friction (iv) Reduction of friction (v) Qualitative treatment of viscosity and terminal velocity (vi) Stoke's law
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  After studying the topic, candidates should be able to:

1. Differentiate between static and dynamic friction
2. Determine the coefficient of limiting friction
3. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of friction
4. Suggest ways by which friction can be reduced
5. Analyse factors that affect viscosity and terminal velocity
6. Apply Stoke's law
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8. Simple Machines

• (i) Definition of simple machines (ii) Types of machine (iii) Mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency of machines
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  After studying the topic, candidates should be able to:

1. Identify different types of simple machines
2. Solve problems involving simple machines
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9. Elasticity: Hooke's Law and Young's Modulus

1. Interpret force-extension curves
2. Interpret Hooke's law and Young's modulus of a material
3. Use spring balance ot measure force
4. Determine the work done in spring and elastic strings
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10. Pressure

• Atmospheric pressure: (i) Definition of atmospheric pressure (ii) units of pressure (S.I) units (Pa) (iii) measurement of pressure (iv) Simple mercury barometer, aneroid barometer and manometer (v) Variation of pressure with height (vi) The use of barometer as an altimeter
• Pressure in liquids (i) the relationship between pressure, depth and density (P - gh) (ii) transmission of pressure in liquids (pascal's principle) (iii) Applications
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  After studying the topic, candidates should be able to:

1. Recognize the S.I units of pressure (Pa)
2. Identify pressure measuring instruments
3. Relate the variation of pressure to height
4. Use a barometer as an altimeter
5. Determine the relationship between pressure depth and density
6. Apply the principle of transmission of pressure in liquids to solve problems
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Jamb syllabus for Physics topic 11 to 15

11. Liquids at rest

• Determination of density of solids and liquids (ii) Definition of relative density (iii) Upthrust on a body immersed in a liquid (iv) Archimedes' principle and law of floatation and applications e.g ships and hydrometers After studying the topic, candidates should be able to:

1. Distinguish between density and relative density of substances
2. Determine the upthrust on a body immersed in a liquid
3. Apply Archimedes' principle and law of floatation to solve problems
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12. Temperature and Its Measurement

1. Identify thermometric properties of materials that ae used for different thermometers (ii) Calibrate thermometers (iii) Differentiate between temperature scales e.g Celsius, Faranheight and Kelvin (iv) Compare the types of thermometers (vi) Convert from one scale of temperature to another
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13. Thermal Expansion

• Solids (i) Definition and determination of linear, volume an area expansivities (ii) effects and application, e.g expansion in building strips and railway lines (iii) relationship between different expansivities
• Liquids (i) Volume expansivity (ii) Real and apparent expansivities (iii) Determination of volume expansivity (iv) Anomalous expansion of water
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  After studying the topic, candidates should be able to:

1. Determine linear and volume expansivities
2. Assess the effects and applications of thermal expansivities
3. Determine the relationship between different expansivities
4. Determine volume, apparent and real expansivities of liquids
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14. Gas laws

• (i) Boyle's law (isothermal process) (ii) Charle's law (isobaric process) (iii) Pressure law (volumetric process) (iv) absolute zero of temperature (v) general gas equation (PV/T = constant) (vi) Ideal gas equation Pv = nRT
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  After studying the topic, candidate should be able to:

1. Use expression of these laws to solve numerical problems
2. Interpret Vander waal equation for one mole of a real gas
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15. Quantity of Heat

• (i) heat as a form of energy (ii) Definition of heat capacity and specific heat capacity of solids and liquids (iii) Determination of heat capacity and specific heat capacity of substances by simple methods e.g methods of mixtures and electrical method and Newton's law of controlling
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  After studying the topic, candidates should be able to: Differentiate between heat capacity and specific heat capacity (ii) Determine heat capacity and specific heat capacity using simple method (iii) Solve numerical problems
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16. Change of State

• (i) Latent heat (ii) Specific latent heats of fusion and vaporization (iii) Melting, evaporation and boiling (iv) the influence of pressure and of dissolved substances on boiling and melting points (v) application in appliances
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  After studying the topic, candidates should be able to:

1. Differentiate between latent heat and specific latent heats of fusion and vaporization
2. Differentiate between melting
3. Examine the effects of pressure and of dissolved substance on boiling and melting points
4. Solve numerical problems
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17. Vapours

• (i) Unsaturated and saturated vapours (ii) relationship between saturated vapour pressure (S.V.P) and boiling (iii) determination of S.V.P by barometer tube method (iv) formation of dew, mist, fog, cloud, and rain (v) study of dew point, humidity and relative humidity (vi) Hygrometry estimation of the humidity of the atmosphere using wet and dry bulb hygrometers.
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  After studying the topic, candidates should be able to:

1. Distinguish between saturated and unsaturated vapours
2. Relate saturated vapour pressure to boiling points
3. Determine S.V.P by barometer tube method
4. Differentiate between dew point, humidity and relative humidity
5. Solve numerical problems
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18. Structure of matter and kinetic theory

• Molecular nature of matter (i) Atoms and molecules (ii) Molecular theory: explanation of Brownian motion, diffusion, surface tension, capillarity, adhesion, cohesion and angles of contact law of definite proportion (iii) Examples and applications
• Kinetic theory (i) assumptions of the kinetic theory (ii) using the theory to explain the pressure exerted by gas, Boyle's law, Charles' law, melting, boiling, vapourization, change in temperature, evaporation etc
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  After studying the topic, candidates should be able to:

1. Differentiate between atoms and molecules
2. Use molecular theory to explain Brownian motion, diffusion, surface tension, capillarity, adhesion, cohesion and angle of contact
3. Examine the assumptions of kinetic theory
4. Interpret kinetic theory, the pressure exerted by gases, Boyle's law, Charles's law, melting, boiling, vaporization, change in temperature, evaporation etc
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19. Heat transfer

• (i) conduction, convection and radiation as modes of heat transfer (ii) temperature gradient, thermal conductivity and heat flux (iii) effect of the nature of the surface on the energy radiated and absorbed by it (iv) the conductivities of common materials (v) the thermos flask and vacuum flask (vi) land and sea breeze (vii) combustion engineering
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  After studying the topic, candidates should be able to:

1. Differentiate between conduction, convection and radiation as modes of heat transfer
2. Solve problems on temperature gradient, thermal conductivity and heat flux
3. Assess the effect of the nature of the surface on the energy radiated and absorbed by it
4. Compare the conductivities of common materials
5. Relate the component part of the working of the thermos flask
6. Differentiate between land and sea breeze
7. Analyse the principles of operating internal combustion jet engines, rockets
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Jamb syllabus for Physics topic 16 to 20

20. Waves

• Production and Propagation
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  (i) wave motion (ii) Vibrating systems as source of waves (iii) Waves as mode of energy transfer (iv) distinction between particle motion and wave motion (v) relationship between frequency, wavelength and wave velocity $(V = f \lambda)$ (vi) phase difference, wave number and wave vector (vii) progressive wave equation
• Classification
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  (i) types of waves; mechanical and electromagnetic waves (ii) longitudinal and transverse waves (iii) stationary and progressive waves (iv) examples of waves from springs, ropes, stretched strings and the ripple tank
• Characteristics/properties
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  (i) reflection, refraction, diffraction and plane polarization (ii) superposition of waves e.g interference (iii) beats (iv) Doppler effects (qualitative treatment only) After studying the topic, candidates should be able to:

1. Interpret wave motion
2. Identify vibrating systems as sources of waves
3. Use waves as a mode of energy transfer
4. Distinguish between particle motion and wave motion
5. Relate frequency and wave length to wave velocity
6. Determine phase differences, wave number and wave vector
7. Use the progressive wave equation to compute basic wave parameters
8. Differentiate between mechanical and electromagnetic waves
9. Differentiate between longitudinal and transverse waves
10. Distinguish between stationary and progressive waves
11. Indicate the example of waves generated from springs, ropes stretched strings and the ripple tank
12. Solve numerical problems on waves, explain the phenomenon of beat, beat frequency and uses
13. Explain Doppler effect of sound and application
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Jamb syllabus for Physics topic 21 to 25

21. Propagation of Sound Waves

• (i) The necessity for a material medium (ii) Speed of sound in solids, liquids and air (iii) reflection of sound, echoes, reverberation and their applications (v) Advantages and disadvantages of echoes and reverberations
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  After studying the topic, candidates should be able to:

1. Determine the need for a material medium in the propagation of sound waves
2. Compare the speed of sound in solids, liquid and air
3. Relate the effects of temperature and pressure to the speed of sound in air
4. Solve problems on echoes, reverberation and speed
5. Compare the disadvantages and advantages of echoes
6. Solve problems on echo, reverberation and speed
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22 Characteristics of Sound Waves

• (i) noise and musical notes (ii) quality, pitch, intensity and loudness and their application to musical instruments (iii) simple treatment of harmonics and overtones produced by vibrating strings and their columns (iv) acoustic examples of resonance (v) frequency of a note emitted by air column in closed and open pipes in relation to their lengths
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  After studying the topic, candidates should be able to:

1. Differentiate between noise and musical notes
2. Analyse quality, pitch, intensity and loudness of sound notes
3. Evaluate the application of (ii) above in the construction of musical instruments
4. Identify overtones by bibrating strings and air columnsfff
5. Itemize acoustical examples of resonance
6. Determine the frequencies of notes emitted by air columns in open and closed pipes in relation to their lengths
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23. Light Energy

• Sources of light (i) natural and artificial sources of light (ii) luminous and non-luminous objectives
• Propagation of light (i) speed, frequency and wavelength of light (ii) formation of shadows and eclipse (iii) the pin-hole camera
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  After studying the topic, the candidate should be able to:

1. Compare the natural and artificial sources of light
2. Differentiate between luminous and non luminous object
3. Relate the speed, frequency and wavelength of light
4. Interpret the formation of shadows and eclipses
5. Solve problems using the principle of operation of a pin-hole camera
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24. Reflection of Light at Plane and Curved Surfaces

• (i) Laws of reflection (ii) application of reflection of light (iii) formation of images by plane, concave and convex mirrors and ray diagram (iv) use of the mirror formula: $\frac{1}{f} + \frac{1}{u} + \frac{1}{v}$ (iv) linear and angular magnification
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  After studying the topic, candidates should be able to:

1. Interpret the laws of reflection
2. Illustrate the formation of images by plane, concave and convex mirrors
3. Apply the mirror formula to solve optical problems
4. Determine the linear magnification
5. Apply the laws of reflection of light to the working of periscope, kaleidoscope and the sextant
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25. Refraction of Light Through at Plane and Curved Surfaces

• (i) explanation of refraction in terms of velocity of light in the media (ii) Laws of refraction (iii) Definition of refractive index of glass and liquid using Snell's law (v) real and apparent depth and lateral displacement (vi) critical angle and total internal reflection
• Glass Prism (i) use of minimum deviation formula (ii) type of lenses: triangular, rectangular etc (iii) use of lens formula (iv) magnification
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  After studying the topic, candidate should be able to:

1. Interpret the laws of reflection
2. Determine the refractive index of glass and liquid using Snell's law
3. Determine the refractive index using the principle of real and apparent depth
4. Determine the conditions necessary for total internal reflection
5. Examine the use of periscope, prism, binoculars, optical fibre
6. Apply the principles of total internal reflection to the formation of mirage
7. Use of lens formula and ray diagrams to solve optical numerical problems
8. Determine the magnification of an image
9. Calculate the refractive index of a glass prism using mimimum deviation formula
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Jamb syllabus for Physics topic 26 to 30

26. Optical instruments

1. Apply the principles of operation of optical instruments to solve problems
2. Distinguish between the human eye and the camera
3. Calculate the power of a lens
4. Evaluate the angular magnification of optical instruments
5. Determine the near and far points
6. Detect sight defects and their corrections
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Dispersion of light and colours

• (i) Dispersion of white light by a triangular Prism (ii) production of pure spectrum (iii) colour mixing by addition and subtraction (iv) colour of objects and colour filters (v) rainbow and formation
• Electromagnetic spectrum (i) description of sources and uses of various types of radiation
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  After studying the topic, candidates should be able to:

1. Identify primary colours and obtain secondary colours by mixing
2. Understand the formation of rainbow
3. Deduce why objects have colours
4. Relate the expression for gravitational force between two bodies
5. Apply Newton's law of universal gravitation
6. Analyse colours using colour filters
7. Analyse the electromagnetic spectrum in relation to their wavelengths, sources, detection and uses
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28. Electrostatics

1. Identify charges
2. Examine uses of an electroscope
3. apply coulomb's square law of electrostatics to solve problems
4. Deduce expressions for electric field intensity and potential difference
5. Identify electric field flux pattern of isolated and interacting charges
6. Analyse the distribution of charges on a conductor and how it is used in lightening conductors
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29. Capacitors

1. Determine uses of capacitors
2. Analyse parallel plate capacitor
3. determine the capacitance of a capacitor
4. analyse the factors that affect the capacitance of a capacitor
5. solve problems involving the arrangement of a capacitor
6. determine the energy stored in capacitor
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30. Electric Cells

1. Identify the defects on the simple voltaic cell and their corrections
2. Compare different types of cells including solar cell
3. Compare the advantages of lead-acid and Nikel iron accumulator
4. Solve problems involving series and parallel combination of cells
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Jamb syllabus for Physics topic 31 to 35

31. Current Electricity

1. Differentiate between emf, p.d, current and internal resistant of a cell
2. Apply ohm's law to solve problems
3. Use metre bridge to calculate resistance
4. Compute effective total resistance of both parallel and series arrangement of resistors
5. Determine the resistivity and the conductivity of a conductor
6. Measure emf, current and internal resistance of a cell using the potentiometer
7. Identify the advantages of the potentiometer
8. Apply Kirchoff's law in electrical networks
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32. Electrical Energy and Power

1. Apply the expressions of electrical energy and power to solve problems
2. Analyse how power is transmitted from the power station to the consumer
3. Identify the heating effects of current and its Uses
4. Identify the advantages of parallel arrangement over series
5. Determine the fuse rating
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33. Magnets and Magnetic fields

1. Give examples of natural and artificial magnets
2. Differentiate between the magnetic properties of soft iron and steel
3. Identify the various methods of making magnets and demagnetizing magnets
4. Describe how to keep a magnet from losing its magnetism
5. Determine the flux pattern exhibited when two magnets are placed together pole to pole
6. Determine the flux of a current carrying conductor, circular wire and solenoid including the polarity of the solenoid
7. Identify the magnetic elements of the earth's flux
8. Determine the variation of earth's magnetic field on the earth's surface
9. Examine the applications of the earth's magntic field
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34. Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic field

1. Determine the direction of force on a current carrying conductor using Fleming's left-hand rule
2. Interpret the attractive and repulsive forces between two parallel current carrying conductors using diagrams
3. Determine the relationship between the force, magnetic field strength, velocity and the angle through which the charge enters the field
4. Interpret the working of the d.c. motor
5. Analyse the principle of electromagnets and give examples of its application
6. Compare moving iron and moving coil instruments
7. Convert a galvanometer into an ammeter or a voltmeter
8. Identify the factors affecting the sensitivity of a galvanometer
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35. Electromagnetic induction

• (i) Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction (ii) factors affecting induced emf (iii) Lenz's law as an illustration of the principle of conservation of energy (iv) a.c and d.c generators (v) transformers (vi) the induction coil
• Inductance (i) explanation of inductance (ii) unit of inductance (iii) energy stored in an inductor (iv) application/uses of inductors
• Eddy current (i) reduction of eddy current (ii) application of eddy current
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  After studying the topic, candidates should be able to

1. Interpret the laws of electromagnetic induction
2. Identify factors affecting induced emf
3. Recognize how Lenz's law illustrates the principle of conservation of energy
4. Interpret the diagrammatic set up of A.C. generators
5. Identify the types of transformer
6. Examine principles of operation of transformers
7. Assess the functions of an induction coil
8. Draw some conclusions from the principles of operation of an induction coil
9. Interpret the inductance of an inductor
10. Recognize units of inductance
11. Calculate the effective total inductance in series and parallel arrangement
12. deduce the expression for the energy stored in an inductor
13. Examine the applications of inductors
14. Describe the method by which eddy current losses can be reduced
15. Determine ways by which eddy currents can be used
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36. Simple A.C Circuits

1. Identify a.c current and d.c voltage
2. Differentiate between the peak and r.m.s values of a.C
3. determine the phase differennce between current and voltage
4. Interpret R-L-C circuits
5. Analyse vector diagrams
6. Calculate the effective voltage, reactanc ena impedance
7. Recognize the condition by which the circuit is at resonance
8. Determine the resonant frequency of R-L-C arrangement
9. Determine the instataneous power average
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37. Conduction of Electricity Through

• Liquid (i) electrolytes and non-electrolyte (ii) concept of electrolysis (iii) Faraday's law of electrolysis (iv) application of electrolysis e.g electroplating, calibration of ammeter etc
• gases (i) discharge through gases (qualitative treatment only) (ii) application of conduction of Electricity through gases
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  After studying the topic, candidates should be able to:

1. Distinguish between electrolytes and non-electrolytes
2. Analyse the processes of electrolysis
3. Apply Faraday's laws of electrolysis to solve problems
4. Analyse discharge through gases
5. Determine some applications/uses of conduction of electricity through gases
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38. Elementary Modern Physics-Bohr's theory

1. identify the models of the atom and write their limitations
2. Describe elementary structure of the atom
3. Differentiate between the energy levels and spectra of atoms
4. Compare thermionic emission and photoelectric emission
5. apply Einstein's equation to solve problems of photoelectric effect
6. Calculate the stopping potential
7. Relate some application of thermionic emission and photoelectric effects
8. Interpret the process involved in the production of x0rays
9. Analyse elementary radioactivity
10. Distinguish between stable ad unstable nuclei
11. Identify isotopes of an elementary
12. Compare the properties of alpha, beta and gamma rays
13. Relate half-life and decay constant of a radioactive elementary
14. Identify some properties and application of x-rays
15. Deterine the binding energy, mass defect and Einstein's energy equation
16. Analyse wave particle duality
17. Solve some numerical problems based on the uncertainty principle and wave particle duality
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39. Introductory Electronics

1. Differentiate between conductors, semiconductors and insulators
2. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semi-conductors (n-type and p-type semiconductor)
3. Distinguish between electron and hole carriers
4. Analyse diodes and transistors
5. Relate diodes to rectification and transistor to amplification
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